Development of a Token Economy

Introduction Carr et al (2005) define a token economy as a treatment procedure that makes use the principles of operant conditioning. Gross Drabman (2005, p.107) on the other hand defines a token economy as an in class, sometimes intensive reinforcement program used by teachers and instructors to maintain performance and behavior in the classroom.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Development of a Token Economy specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Barkley (1990, p. 46) asserts that a token economy is a system that is used in behavior modification by employing positive reinforcements of target behavior on students. Liberman (2000, p. 156) on his part adopts a more layman definition of token economies by alluding that they are programs through which students who may be individuals or entire classrooms use to accumulate points for showing desired behavior. He continues that the students will then later redeem the points accumulated for preferred activities or privileges. The above definitions have adopted different disciplines from which the meaning of a token economy has been derived. However, one thing is clear, that token economies are used to improve behaviors on the people they are used on through the introduction of positive reinforcement. It’s important to note that token economies are based on the generalized conditioned reinforcement principle. Carr et al (2005, p. 2) says that token economies are primarily used to increase and maintain appropriate or expected behaviors among students. An important element about token economy that is normally overlooked is the response cost procedure where children lose the points they have accumulated incase they engage in inappropriate behavior. This paper will focus on an elaborate token economy plan that will include the target population, the required behaviors list of reinforcements and token costs for each menu, the tokens themselves and the mode of storage of the tokens. Plan.  Target population Token economies are used on a variety of populations and under very varying circumstances. However, this token economy plan is targeting children with learning disabilities.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More They include children diagnosed with disabilities such as conduct disorder, mental retardation, autism and attention deficit disorder. It’s important to note that a token economy system is implemented when other positive reinforcement methods have failed to produce to produce appropriate behavior in children. Identification and definition of target behaviors The teacher will choose two to four most important behaviors that he /she feels are problematic and that need change. According to Carr et al (2005, p. 1) the teacher will target behaviors that are reasonable in number besides being observable and relevant to the children’s goals in education. The teacher will ensure children will be able to perform the chosen behaviors and they should be easily monitored by the teachers. The behaviors should be positively stated in a chart that can be accessed by every student. Examples of behaviors may include â€Å"completed home assignment in time†, â€Å"was early for class†, â€Å"and â€Å"observed class rules†. The teacher will be free to choose either classroom related targeted behaviors to increase productivity and conduct related behaviors or both. Some of the required behaviors that are written positively are shown below. â€Å"Turned in homework on time† â€Å"Obeyed class rules† â€Å"Played well with the other children† â€Å"Was prepared for class† â€Å"Percentage of math completed† â€Å"Percentage of accurately completed reading† Adopted from: O’Leary, K. O’Leary, S. (1976). Classroom Management: The succ essful use of behavioral modification. New York: Pergamon Press. Token selection The teacher will select and avail tokens, which will be tangible items to which some value is attached. They may be points, coupons or poker chips that will be tamper proof and durable. Every goal will have a token value and will be assigned according to the difficulty of the goal to be attained.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Development of a Token Economy specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Teachers will also have to come up with a way of awarding partial achievement of goals by the students. It important for teachers not to use highly valued tokens since the tokens will later on be given up for positive reinforcements. Formulation of a method to help in keeping track of points and / or tokens The teacher will develop a program of tracking the tokens or points accumulated by every student. That way both the teacher and the child wil l be able to easily monitor the progress of the child. In cases where the tokens will be physical gifts like stars and stamps, it will be important for the teacher to place them out of reach of children to avoid unnecessary distraction. Selection of powerful reinforcements The teacher will select powerful rewards that children will get in return for their accumulated tokens. Filcheck Mcneil (2004, p. 94) says that the power and effectiveness of a token lies in its reward value. At this stage, it’s important for teachers to realize that the rewards or reinforcements will be crucial for the success of the token economy program. The teachers will also make sure that the children perceive the rewards as desirable and worth striving for. Furthermore, they will make sure the reward system menu is updated every time so that children don’t lose attention and interest. It’s important if teachers will involve children is selecting reward systems through discussion and ob servation. Additionally, parents may be involved in suggesting the activities that the children favor so that they can be included in the reward system. The table below shows some of the reinforcements that can be used in system. * Access to hand held video games * Free time in class * Computer time * Small toys * Field Trips * Working on a bulletin board * Being in charge of sharing time * Passing out books * Acting as a line leader * Leading in the morning pledge to the flag * Leading songs * Being captain of a team * Helping in the cafeteria * Assisting the custodian * Helping the librarian * Snacks * Extra Recess time * Playing Games * Playing Computer games like Jumpstart Programs * Legos * Art Projects * Access to science area * Helping collect work of others * Erasing the chalkboard * Running the copy machine * Stapling papers together * Feeding the fish or animals * Raising or lowering the flag * Emptying the wastebaskets * Operating a projector * Correcting papers * Givi ng message over the intercom * Cutting paper * Running errands * Helping in the school office * Cleaning erasers * Writing lesson plans on the chalkboard * Watering plants * Tutoring a less able child * Collecting papers * Getting out the gym equipment * Taking roll * Working with clay * Listening to a radio with an earphone * Visiting the counselor or principal Adopted from: O’Leary, K. O’Leary, S. (1976). Classroom Management: The successful use of behavioral modification. New York: Pergamon Press.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Establishment of the system of exchange The teacher will establish a system that will guide who gets what for the tokens accumulated. This process will entail the teacher identifying the every goal and assigning the token value that the children will have to work for to get a reward. According to Liberman (2000, p. 160) initially the teacher will have to set the goals at a level that is easily achievable. If the goal is set to high then it risks creating a perception among students that it’s not achievable effectively diminishing the importance of the system. It’s therefore for the teacher to monitor the performance of every student and setting the goals slightly above the baseline of the average performance level of the child. The logic here is to make the child believe that he/she is achieving success hence it will motivate him/her to do more. Explanation to the children The teacher will explain to the children what the program entails at a time appropriate for both the teacher and the student. The teacher will elaborate to the children of the behaviors that are expected and how they can be achieved. The teacher will also inform the students of the goals that the students will have to achieve for them to get the rewards. Additionally the teacher will reveal the rewards to the students at this stage. Provision of feedback The teacher will decide the mode of token allocation. For instance, he/ she may decide to allocate tokens for every occurrence of the expected behavior. Additionally, the tokens can be awarded by the teacher and predetermined intervals. At this stage, consistency and accuracy in awarding target behaviors will be important. Additionally, the teacher will be encouraged to use praise and frequent social attention every time children achieve the desired behaviors. At this stage, the response cost technique can be employed. Here children who will misbehave or fail to meet the proscribed behaviors will lose tokens hence will not be a ble to claim the reinforcements. Gross Drabman (2005, p.115) says that it’s important that the response costs technique to be applied after the programs has run for some time to avoid discouragement of the children. Rewarding The teacher will specify in the plan the time when reviewing of the children’s progress towards the goal will be made. The teacher will determine if the child or students met the goals and the children will be allowed to choose the reward that they want according to the available guideline. If the children did not achieve the goals, the teacher will inform them in a â€Å"matter of fact† way. However, the teacher will need to abstain from making corrective statements or statements that will reprimand the student. Maintainace programming Carrr et al (2005) says that the token economy system is very artificial and it has to withdrawn at some point. The teacher will analyze if there is any improvement in the behavior of the child as per the b enchmarks he/she set. In case there is improvement and withdrawal of the token economy process becomes necessary, Gross Drabman (2005, p.120) recommends that there be a program in place to help the children maintain the behavior that they could have learned during the token economy program. The most common way to change the program is to increase the number of token required for reward to be earned. For instance, if a child was allowed to accumulate tokens several times in one day, the frequency can be reduced to once a day as the behavior improves. Another way to change the program is to substitute new problem behaviors as need be. The teacher will introduce new problems to which he/she will require the students to accumulate the same number of tokens or less. It’s important that the teacher praises the child for the progress he/she has made when making the changes. The teacher will also need to explain to the children the need for change and the expectations as per the new changes. References Barkley, R.A. (1990) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment. New York: Guilford. Carr E.J et al (2005). Token Economy. New York: Sage Publications Filcheck, H. A McNeil, C.B. (2004) The use of token economies in preschool classrooms: practical and philosophical concerns. Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention, 1, 94-104. Gross, A.M Drabman, R.S. (2005) Encyclopedia of behavior modification and cognitive behavior therapy – Volume 2: Child clinical applications. Los Angeles: Sage Publications Liberman, R.P. (2000) The token economy. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1398. This essay on Development of a Token Economy was written and submitted by user Luciano O. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Grieving Process of Holden Caulfield Essays - Literature

The Grieving Process of Holden Caulfield Essays - Literature The Grieving Process of Holden Caulfield Everyone has a different response to traumatic events and come up with different ways of coping with the emotions that go along with it. In the novel The Catcher in the Rye, Holden Caulfield embodies several stages of the grieving process. The main ones consistently seen throughout the novel include anger, denial and depression. He displays these stages through his actions and especially through his words. He progresses through the stages beginning with anger and then leading into a combination of denial and depression. The stage of depression hits Holden the hardest, with his mental state getting worse and worse as time goes on. Towards the end of the novel he has hit his lowest point and essentially spiraled out of control. However, by the very end of the novel he seems to be nearing the stage of acceptance slightly. The first stage that Holden appears to have gone through is anger. This stage hit him very quickly, and began the night that Allie died. Holden explains how he was so upset that he decided to sleep in the garage and then out of anger and sadness ends up breaking all the windows in the garage. "I slept in the garage the night he died, and I broke all the goddam windows with my fist, just for the hell of it. I even tried to break all the windows on the station wagon we had that summer, but my hand was already broken and everything by that time, and I couldn't do it," (Salinger 44). This was Holden's way of dealing with Allie's death. He lashed out and couldn't accept the fact that his brother was gone. This led his parents to begin to worry about him and his reaction to Allie's death. Holden even mentions that they were considering having him psychoanalyzed due to the incident and all the damage he had caused. This event also caused even bigger problems for Holden in the long run becau se he never attended Allie's funeral. He was stuck in the hospital and never got to go and say his goodbyes. So he never got any closure with Allie's death, leading him to continue through the stages of the grieving process. It leads him to remain in denial at Allie's death and pushes him to become more and more depressed. The next stage that Holden goes through is denial. This is one of the stages that is very apparent throughout the novel and kind of goes hand in hand with the depression stage. It is made obvious that Holden has not accepted Allie's death due to the numerous times that Holden says he still pretends Allie is there and has conversations with him. He uses the idea of Allie as sort of a protector and someone he could turn to when he was scared or just needed someone to talk to. This is exemplified when Holden is becoming extremely depressed and fearing that every time he crossed the road he wouldn't make it to the other side: Every time I'd get to the end of a block I'd make believe I was talking to my brother Allie. I'd say to him, Allie, don't let me disappear. Allie, don't let me disappear. Allie, don't let me disappear. Please, Allie. And then when I'd reach the other side of the street without disappearing, I'd thank him. Then it would start all over again as soon as I got to the next corner. But I kept going and all. I was sort of afraid to stop, I think - I don't remember, to tell you the truth. (Salinger 218) Holden becomes so entrenched in believing that he's speaking to Allie that it helps him to make it across the street. However, this shows how deeply he has fallen into this world of depression and the degree of how much he's still in denial over Allie's death. Another instance that Holden displays the denial of Allie's death is when he returns home to talk to Phoebe. She asks him to name one thing he actually likes and he fails to think of anything other than Allie. It's like Holden's entire world still revolves

Drama Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Drama - Research Paper Example The theatrical form requires that even the audience in the last row catch the emotion expressed by the actor without it being rendered awkward due to the element of exaggeration involved. This is the context where physical acting can save the occasion. Also, physical action involves movement that can be weaved into the movement of the plot of the play itself to bring about a kind of doubled impact. Simon McBurney categorized human behavior into seven levels of tension, namely, coma, relaxed, neutral, alert, suspense, passionate and explosion so that there can be a level of standardisation on how the actor can express emotions in the form of physical actions on stage. Stanislavski on the other hand had much earlier developed the method of physical actions by which an actor supplements his/her emotional acting with corresponding physical actions. Both these approaches to physical acting have been lauded as systems that immensely help methodical acting yet criticized as well as constrictive to the real spirit of the total emotional experience involved. This has been a criticism raised against all kinds of physical theater. Yet, even the critics will agree that relying on facial expressions and internal feelings alone will render theater motionless and boring. While Stanislavski has more or less tried to provide just a physical actions-based loose framework corresponding to emotio nal states, the McBurney method prescribes specific physical actions for different emotions and thereby faces the risk of reductionism. Hence, Stanislavskys method of physical actions can be said to be imparting more freedom to an actor than McBurneys method. Method of physical actions was not merely a directive of physical training for Stanislavsky but the the psychological aspects of any physical action was also accounted for in this method (Chushkin, 1998, p.16). It was acknowledged by this theater maestro that the actor necessarily needed to have an â€Å"inner